THREATENING CULTURAL TRADITIONS WITH BASEBALL IN JAPAN AND AMERICA

Threatening Cultural Traditions with baseball in Japan and America

Erik Denmark

Com 561 – Globalization, Media and Culture

May 23, 2007

Threatening Cultural Traditions with baseball in Japan and America

Erik Denmark

Com 561 – Globalization, Media and Culture

May 23, 2007

Introduction

            Baseball is said to be the national pastime of the United States.  The history of baseball in America dates back before the turn of the century.  Many of the past heroes of American baseball, such as Yogi Berra, Ted Williams, Babe Ruth, Willie Mays, and Mickey Mantle can be associated with important political times in America.  Major League Baseball in the United States can be associated with a culture and a style that is uniquely American.  Summer in America would not be the same without the crack of the bat sounding off in to the 36 baseball fields around the country. 

            The game of baseball can be considered truly American and our baseball heroes are held in high regard.  Baseball in America has struggled with diversity issues just like other parts of society.  There was a separate league for black people called the Negro leagues until Jackie Robinson broke baseball’s color barrier in the 1950’s.  Jackie Robinson has since been revered as a revolutionary, not only in baseball, but in American history as well.   

            On the one hand, the sport of baseball is a fairly simple bat-and-ball game, with just a few primary rules to help run the game. Baseball is played between two teams comprised of nine players each on a field that is marked out in the form of a diamond, with a base at each corner. Players try to hit the thrown baseball with a bat, and the players try to score by completing a circuit of bases. A homerun is simply a complete circuit of the bases on just one hit. On the other hand, baseball has evolved into something that is much more than just a sport, having assumed the preeminent status of America's favorite pastime.  Indeed, many baseball fans have elevated the major stars of the sport to near-godlike status, and despite some rocky times during the last part of the 20th century, the sport appears to be gaining in popularity today.

            According to most sources, Dr. Horace Wilson, an American professor teaching in Japan, introduced the Japanese to baseball in the 1870's. As a result, baseball first became popular at Japanese Universities. From the early 1900's through the 1930's, the Big Six University League was the "Major League" of Japan, much as college football was the dominant form of U.S. football during the same era.

            But recently baseball has turned into a world dominated game, not just by Americans.  The people in Japan have developed almost as intense if not more intense fascination with the game of baseball as do the people in America.  “Baseball’s grip on Japan’s collective psyche is due, ultimately to the fact that is suits the national character”[1]

            And now Japan has produced numerous big leaguers in the past two decades with a different style of baseball.  The first Japanese players to come over were pitchers with players such as Hideo Nomo, Hideki Irabu and Kazahiro Sasaki celebrating successful careers.  Recently, position players and national heroes such as Ichiro Suzuki and Hideki Matsui have made the leap successfully to the Major Leagues.    

            There has always been an eclectic, uneasy connection between the United States and Japan. Fueled by a difficult, sometimes bitterly antagonistic history, the two countries have gone from sworn enemies to intense economic competitors to fragile, uneasy allies over the last fifty years. And that complex shared history found its way to the ties shared by the U.S. and Japan through each country's national fascination with the sport of baseball.

            From the 1930's when Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig lead a group of major league stars on a barnstorming tour of Japan to subsequent years when Japanese teams actively courted fading major league talent, the onus of the two countries' shared interest in the sport has primarily been on Japan's interest in American baseball and very little of the opposite. America has long regarded Japanese baseball as a lesser version of the "real" thing.

            Jim Colburn who is a scout for the Seattle Mariners in Japan stated bluntly that “our (the United States) baseball reflects Western culture; aggressiveness, innovation, surprise.  But their (Japan’s) baseball reflected Japanese values; proper form, rote learning, harmony, constant effort.  It frustrated Americans on our team who were just trying to win the game.  They’d ask, ‘Why do we have to hop and skip for 30 minutes beforehand?’  Of course the answer was because that was the way it was done”[2].

            The Japanese had created a unique and effective style of baseball, albeit frustrating to Americans.  “The U.S. is a land where the hard individualist is honored…in Japan, however, the word for individualism, Kojinshugi, is almost a dirty word.  The only one who knows what’s best are the managers and the coaches”[3]       

            Japan had developed affection for amateur baseball early in the 20^th century. Even today, a Japanese player who wishes to play in America’s Major League faces significant barriers. Usually, he will have to play nine or ten seasons in the Japanese system, which will put him in or just past his prime.

            It is almost certain that the current situation will likely change again in the direction of greater freedom for Japanese players to go to the majors, because three key groups want it at this time: the majors, the Japanese players, and (most important) the Japanese public. It is difficult to determine what those changes will be, but given the position of the Japanese baseball establishment, it is very likely those changes will come in a slow and incremental fashion. The Japanese baseball establishment still has a reasonable degree of control, and will not yield it quickly or easily.

           

           

Conceptual Framework

            Japanese culture has shaped the way that Japanese baseball has been played.  Baseball is a team sport that involves many personal battles, which naturally lends itself to an ideological method to play the game.  Because baseball is considered a very patriotic American sport there is obviously a sense of American pride associated with its players and the way the game is played.  Japanese professional baseball is played a different way than American baseball.   The presence of culture and national pride could be at the root of the differing style.

            The difference in American and Japanese baseball goes beyond just a sense of country and pride in competition.  America and Japan have had a tumultuous history as enemies and allies and now that Japan has won the inaugural World baseball Classic, the overtones of Orientalism and imperialism of the United States is even more relevant.  There is an ideological difference, a difference in style and approach.  There is also a difference in culture and this difference bleeds into more than just sports, it is an extension of the imperial mindset of the United States. 

Research Questions

1.         How is the style of baseball that is played in Japan perceived by the media in America?  How does Orientalism play a role in this perception?

2.         How is America’s influence affecting the tradition and style of baseball in Japan?

3.         How will Japan’s victory in the inaugural World Baseball Classic affect the future of baseball in Japan and America?

Literature Review

            For the purpose of this research I will utilize four main books as a basis for my theoretical background. 

            Edward R. Said: Orientalism (1978).  Said writes about the cumulative effects of centuries of theorizing about the Orient, the institutionalization of the spread of Western ideals about the Orient, “an accepted grid for filtering through the Orient into Western consciousness”[4].  The accumulation of filtered knowledge has resulted in the broadly defined field of Orientalism.  Said’s notion and definition of Orientalism are in depth revelation that in broad terms reveal how Eastern cultures and their history have been cast in a negative light consistent with the Western notions of superiority.  Said’s concepts of Orientalism support a theory of how Japanese players and baseball could be perceived as different and inferior in terms of American baseball.

            John Pilger: The New Rulers of the World (2002). Pilger presents four essays that culminate in the view of the world as dominated by the deceit and destructive acts of Western society.  The four essays in Pilger’s book commonly reveal a pattern of corrupt, violent, and deceptive form of the imperial power of America and in general Western societies.  One major point of emphasis on maintaining an imperial dominance is constantly exhibiting and using an overpowering military force to keep threatening and smaller countries at bay. 

            I am particularly drawn to how Pilger’s ideals of Western imperialism have seeped in to the minds of Americans in their view of Japanese culture.  In particular, I believe there is more than a coincidental correlation between the ideal that America has a superior standing in the world because of the horrific show of military power in releasing nuclear bombs on Japan during World War II.  As much as the world wants to believe that civilizations can move beyond their tumultuous past, I believe the events of World War II will always create a wedge between America and Japan that can easily be turned in to a prejudice or stereotypical view of one another.

            Robert Whiting: You Gotta Have Wa (1989) and The Samurai Way of Baseball (2004).  Whiting’s books are virtually encyclopedias of in-depth knowledge and comparisons of how baseball is played in Japan and in America.  In You Gotta Have Wa, Whiting outlines the contrast in styles of Japanese and American baseball by following the many examples of former Major League players and managers who have played and managed in the professional leagues in Japan.  The Japanese term “wa” translates to mean unity or harmony and team spirit[5], every Japanese player must have it and it is used to embody the style of Japanese baseball.        

            In The Samurai Way of Baseball, Whiting again updates his observations of Japanese baseball but now in America.  Whiting discusses how Japanese baseball players have managed to make their way to the Major Leagues in America and for the most part the vast success they have had.  Whiting continues to explore how the style of Japanese players makes a difference in the Major Leagues and shows how maybe some misconceptions of American dominance in baseball will be overcome.  Whiting’s books on the Japanese style of baseball and players certainly provide the bulk of detailed background and research for this study.

Significance of this Study

            This research is important because I believe the way that baseball is played in different countries is a current and relevant form of cultural expression.  Though many may think that baseball is just a game and therefore cannot provide significant scholarly observations, I would challenge those people to consider that through the simplicity of a game many subconscious and instinctual behaviors can actually reveal more than in most controlled settings.  It has been well noted that there is a distinct difference between American and Japanese baseball and with each style almost clashing at polar opposites; it makes for a very relevant case study on the origins and perceptions of these differences. 

            Orientalism and imperialism are not new concepts; they have been introduced and confirmed in many different historical settings.  It is easy however, to dismiss the many of the resulting negative effects of Orientalism and imperialism as concepts perpetuated by a universal government and can easily make accountability at an individual level non-existent.  I believe a unique strength of this case study is the fact that the game of baseball and how it is played is something that the majority of Americans have first hand experience of or can relate to in some way.  Thus, this case study can provide current evidence on a very relative level of how Orientalism and imperialism are being treated in today’s society.

Methodology

            I will use a case study method to collect data for this research.  The case study method will be the most effective tool to effectively answer the questions that are the focus for this research.  The questions being asked in this study are dealing with a contemporary set of events over which I have no control of the outcome; therefore a case study will have a distinct advantage as a research tool[6].

            The main methods I will use to collect data will be documentation and direct observation of the 2006 World Baseball Classic.  My direct observation will be an ESPN (English version) broadcast of the 2006 World Baseball Classic.  The particular game I will focus on to retrieve data will be the game played between the United States and Japan on March 12, 2006.   

            I will also review print material in the United States media that discusses the results of the World Baseball Classic and the significance of Japan’s victory.  I believe the observations of both the television broadcast of Japan versus the United States and the print material will yield significant data to draw conclusions from to help answer my research questions.

            My observations from the television broadcasts will be general in nature but I will try to focus on the similarities and differences in the way that United States and Japan play and conduct themselves physically and emotionally and how they are managed.  Since the broadcast I will be watching is an American production, I will also pay close attention to how the announcers talk about the Japanese baseball players and their team.  I will keep track of the statements that are made describing the Japanese players, how they play, how they act, and if there is a distinct difference in how they are perceived by the American broadcasters. 

            I will use print sources to provide documentation of the events of the World Baseball Classic.  I will also pay close attention to how the Japanese players and mangers are perceived and portrayed by the media.  I will combine my direct observation of the game and the print material to draw conclusions about this data according to the research questions I have presented.

Assumptions and Limitations

            There will be some assumptions and limitations I will have to make and consider through this research methodology.  The World Baseball Classic does not have a rich tradition considering that the 2006 edition was the inaugural playing of the tournament.  I will have to assume that the countries, teams, and players represented in the tournament were typical of the type of player and the type of baseball that is played in the respective countries and leagues of America and Japan. 

            I am limited to observe only one game that was played between the United States and Japan during this tournament.  Had there been multiple games played between the countries in this tournament or in other similar tournaments, the results of my data and analysis could be different.  However, the fact that this is the first playing of the tournament and that the teams and countries met only once raises the stakes somewhat and could actually yield more interesting results. 

Findings

            I will first present my findings from the broadcast of the game between the United States and Japan played on March 12, 2006 in Anaheim, California.  The game presented a wealth of examples and analysis of the style of baseball played in Japan and America.  The ESPN broadcasters for the game included main analyst, Dave O’Brien, and former Major League players turned analysts, Rick Sutcliffe and Eric Karros.  I will describe my observations based on the characteristics of the game and comments and interviews that were given by the American broadcasters.

            As the broadcast begins, the announcers seem to be mainly focused on the Japanese baseball team and immediately start to draw attention to the contrast in style.  The Japanese team manager, Sadaharu Oh, is introduced as the most celebrated and famous player in Japanese baseball history.  Oh holds the all time record for career home runs with 868 but his style is described as very authentic and traditional to the Japanese style described in Whiting’s You Gotta Have Wa.  He is referred to by Rick Sutcliffe as “the Babe Ruth or Hank Aaron of Japanese baseball.”

The lineup and batting order for Japan is as follows:

1	Ichiro Suzuki	RF
2	Tsuyoshi Nishioka	2B
3	Hitoshi Tamura	LF
4	Nobuhiko Matsunara	DH
5	Kosuke Fukudome	CF
6	Akinori Iwamura	3B
7	Michichiro Ogasawara	3B
8	Motonobu Tanishige	C
9	Munenori Kawasaki	SS
	Koji Uehara	P

            The Japanese team is loaded with speedy left-handers.  In fact seven of the nine batters for Japan will bat left handed against the U.S. starting right handed pitcher, Jake Peavy.  Sadaharu Oh exhibits a strategy of odds by utilizing his left handed bats to give his hitters an advantage of seeing the ball better from the right handed pitcher. 

The lineup and batting order for the United States is as follows:

1	Michael Young	2B
2	Derek Jeter	SS
3	Ken Griffey Jr.	CF
4	Alex Rodriquez	DH
5	Chipper Jones	3B
6	Derek Lee	1B
7	Brian Schneider	C
8	Vernon Wells	LF
9	Randy Winn	RF
	Jake Peavy	P

            The U.S. team is coached by Buck Martinez.  At the time Martinez was the head coach for a mediocre Toronto Blue Jays team (he has since been fired).  Martinez, in contrast to Sadaharu Oh, is not a big name in American baseball.  Martinez utilizes only four hitters who will hit left handed against The Japanese right handed pitcher Koji Uehara.  The U.S. lineup is loaded with homerun hitting power and the stage is thus set for a clash of style and play between the speedy, tactical Japanese team and the overpowering American sluggers.

            I took notes of important observations and comments from each inning of the game as follows:

Top of 1^st Inning:

            Japan scores first on a leadoff homerun by Ichiro Suzuki, one of the two most famous current baseball players from Japan along with Hideki Matsui (elected not to play in Classic).  Ichiro immediately discredits any stereotype about the Japanese players that they will strictly play “small ball” and do not hit for power.  Ichiro is greeted by jubilant cheers in the Japanese dugout, a clear display of celebration and emotion.   

Top of 2^nd Inning:

Announcer Dave O’Brien badly mispronounces CF Kosuke Fukudome’s name.  The American broadcasters are very focused on making note of the powerful lineup of the U.S. team and as well seem to bring up how each Japanese player has some power and is not just a singles hitter.  The focus of the attention is definitely on homerun hitting. 

Dave O’Brien mentions how it was somewhat of a national embarrassment when Japan lost to Korea in the first round of the tournament and finished second place in the Asian bracket.

O’Brien describes how third baseman Akinori Iwamura desperately wants to play baseball in America.  He has played professionally in Japan for nine years.  Iwamura has dyed hair and wears a large beaded necklace on the outside of his jersey.  Japanese leftfielder Hitoshi Tamura also has dyed hair and wears a similarly large necklace.

The broadcasters have mentioned several times already how the Japanese team is fundamentally sound and superior.  Eric Karros says “the Japanese team is as fundamentally sound as any team, anywhere.”   

Dave O’Brien paraphrases Sadaharu Oh’s theory on how Japan will play against the United States: “You don’t necessarily win because you have the physically strongest team on the field; you win because you have the best technique.”  O’Brien states, “that is the Japanese philosophy” and is noted after Ogasawara executes a successful sacrifice bunt.

O’Brien reads a quote from Oh that was recorded before the tournament began:  “I think we will play a game that is respectful of all nuances of baseball that if performed properly lend to winning baseball in an elegant way.”  Japan scores two runs on a single by Kawasaki after the runners were moved over by Ogasawara’s bunt and leads 3-0.

Bottom of 2^nd Inning:

Chipper Jones leads off the inning with a homerun for the U.S. team.  The crowd starts a weak chant of “USA, USA.” 

Derek Lee is mentioned to have grown up in Japan when his Dad, Leon Lee played baseball there.  Lee speaks some Japanese and is described as having learned the Japanese style of baseball.  O’Brien makes note that there is a distinct difference between the Japanese and American style of baseball and he uses Ichiro as an example.  O’Brien mentions that Oh stated his team would likely not match the USA team in power but would be better defensively.

Eric Karros mentions that “the notion of the Japanese style of baseball; the small ball, hit and run, bunts, is not necessarily relevant anymore as it used to be, now they (Japanese players) are going to try to hit home runs and they are going to maybe swing at a 3-0 pitch.”  Japan hit five home runs in the first round of the tournament.

It is mentioned that Japan’s pitcher, Uehara, age 30,  wants to come to the USA to play but is currently being blocked by his team in Japan, the Yomiuri Giants. 

First baseman Ogasawara makes a brilliant diving play to rob the USA of a big inning.

Top of 3^rd Inning:   

An interview with Ichiro is shown.  Ichiro comments on what it would mean to defeat the U.S. team:      

            “It would be unimaginable if we were to win, we would be extremely excited.  I             think everyone in Japan, especially obviously for Japanese baseball players; you             know Major League in America is really the most important stage.  To come on to             that stage and win would not only be a historical moment but also a personal             triumph.”

O’Brien describes how Ichiro made comments before the first round game with Korea that if they (Japan) could beat Korea they could prove that Japan is 30 years ahead of the other Asian teams in baseball.  Ichiro received a bit of a backlash in the Japanese media for his comments after he made the last out in the loss against Korea.  The ESPN broadcast is very focused on Ichiro.

Bottom of 3^rd Inning:

A wild pitch is thrown by Uehara that goes right between the legs of the Japanese catcher and allows runners to advance.  This was an easy play for the catcher to make.

Top of 4^th Inning:

The broadcast continues its focus on Ichiro.  It is mentioned that Ichiro has the most pressure as anyone in the tournament to play his team in to the finals.  “Ichiro is Japan baseball,” Rick Sutcliffe says, “even though he plays in the U.S. now.”

They play more clips from Oh interview regarding Ichiro – “he has a great physique, great stamina to last a long season, and he has great visibility to recognize the ball.  His hands are remarkable to react to many pitches.”

Eric Karros talks about Ichiro’s intense practice routine and then provides an alternative perspective on Ichiro:  “typically what we think of with Japanese players is a certain stoicism, the inability to kind of cut loose and enjoy things but that is not Ichiro’s style.  During practice he is funny and has fun, during the game he is a typical Japanese player, there is not a whole lot of emotion, he controls himself; contains himself.”

Bottom of 5^th Inning:

More clips from the Sadaharu Oh interview are shown.  Oh explains how he developed his technique of hitting and he mentions that he used the technique of pitchers pushing off their back legs for power as inspiration for his technique of weight transfer.  The announcers describe Oh as “brilliant” and an “amazing gentleman and human being.” 

O’Brien says that Oh admitted to him that “he (Oh) is very jealous of Ichiro and Matsui, very proud of them for coming to the United States and becoming stars but envious none the less that he did not have a shot to prove himself in the big leagues.”  Oh’s contract did not allow to leave the leagues in Japan at the time he played.  It is mentioned that Hideo Nomo set the precedent in the early 90’s for players to come from Japan and be successful.

Third baseman Iwamura makes a brilliant diving defensive play on a Vernon Wells hit that keeps a rally for the U.S. team from developing.  Shortstop Kawasaki ends the inning with an amazing over the shoulder catch in shallow center field. 

O’Brien describes the Japanese defense as “nothing short of spectacular.”

Bottom of 6^th Inning:

Japan is leading the game 3-1 in large part to the superior pitching of Uehara.  However, since the World Baseball Classic is being played in March, prior to the Major League season in the United States, a mandatory pitch limit was enforced for each round in order to avoid arm injuries.  The pitch limit for the first round was 65, 80 for the second round, and 95 for the semifinals and finals.  Uehara had thrown 74 pitches through five innings and therefore had to be relieved.  Noriuoku Shimizu is the new pitcher.

O’Brien describes how the Japanese team was unhappy about the pitch limits being so low in the tournament because even though their season start around the same time as the MLB season, they start training their players at least one month earlier and their arms are much stronger due to the emphasis on constant training. 

Derek Lee hits a two-run homerun off of Shimizu two batters later to tie the game, 3-3.

Top of 7^th Inning:

With no outs and Iwamura on first after a single, Oh decides not to sacrifice bunt, which would be expected in this situation according to the described Japanese style.  The batter Michihiro Ogasawara finished second in the Japan Pacific League in homeruns with 37 last season but he strikes out.  Despite the fact that Oh decided not to sacrifice bunt in that situation, Sutcliffe states that “part of the Japanese philosophy is that anyone can bunt anywhere in the order.”

After Kawasaki gets a single with two outs too put runners on first and second, Ichiro grounds out to end the threat.

Bottom of 7^th Inning:

Michael Young starts the inning with a single and Derek Jeter lays down a sacrifice bunt to move Young to 2^nd base with one out.  Interesting to note that the U.S. team decided to bunt, whereas in the same situation, Japan did not decide to bunt to move the runner over in the top of the inning. 

Japan changes pitchers twice in the inning and with two outs new pitcher Yasuhiko Yabuta strikes out Alex Rodriguez with Young on third base.  Oh can be seen visibly celebrating and pumping his fists in the background. 

Top of 8^th Inning:

Sutcliffe talks about Hideki Matsui’s absence on the Japan team: “Matsui, the most popular player in Japan now decided not to play for Japan because he has loyalty to the Yankees and wants to focus on winning a championship with them now after signing a big contract.  Oh responded to Matsui’s decision not to play by saying “It’s a pity but that’s his decision.”

Nishioka leads off with a single and this time Oh decides to try and bunt him over to second.  Tamura however, cannot successfully execute the sacrifice and he pops out to first base.  Japan cannot live up to their billing as fundamentally superior.

Japan gets two walks and has the bases loaded with one out and Iwamura up to bat.  Nishioka on third tries to distract the pitcher by faking an attempt to steal home.  Sutcliffe mentions that “the way Americans play baseball, they would never do anything like that, but here you just don’t know what the Japanese are going to do.”

Iwamura hits a fly ball to left fielder Randy Winn, Nishioka waits for the catch and runs for home.  Winn’s throw is off line and Nishioka appears to score on the sacrifice fly.  The U.S. team appeals to the third base umpire that Nishioka left too early but he is called safe.  U.S. manager Martinez, however, is convinced that Nishioka left early and comes on the field and asks the home plate umpire to discuss the call with his team.  Shockingly, the call is reversed and Nishioka is called out for leaving early, the run is discounted and the inning is over.  Replays determine that Nishioka did not leave early and the umpire’s overrule was incorrect.

Oh comes on the field to argue the overruled call to no avail but the Japanese team refuses to take the field for the next inning in silent protest of the call until they are advised to by Oh.  The Japanese team looks in shock.  The announcers admit that Japan did not get a fair call and they reveal how all of the umpires in the game are from United States.

Top of 9^th Inning:

Ogasawara walks and the lead-off man is on for the third straight inning. Norichika Aoki pinch hits for Tanashige.  Aoki won the rookie of the year in Japan in 2005 and he is the first player since Ichiro to have over 200 hits in a complete season.  Aoki idolizes Ichiro and he too want to come to America to play baseball.  Aoki lays down a perfect sacrifice bunt to move Ogasawara to second.  Japan loads the bases but cannot score again.

Bottom of 9^th Inning:

The score is tied 3-3 and the U.S. needs only one run to end the game.  Wells hits a single.  Winn lays down a sacrifice bunt and Japan second baseman Nishioka misses the bag at first for his second error of the game.  USA loads the bases and with two outs Alex Rodriguez hits a weak single up the middle to end the game with the U.S. team winning 4-3.

Team Japan is shown in the dugout after the game almost all of them standing with their heads hanging.  The team looks devastated, sullen, disappointed and seemingly shocked at how the game ended with their expectations so high. 

Dave O’Brien states that “the talent between the two teams was so equal that it came down to little things and one big call.”

U.S. manger Buck Martinez is interviewed right after the game and he commented, “what a way to jump start the season, I don’t know that anyone expected it to be this exciting this early in the season.”  Martinez seems to be referring to the American MLB season not the World Baseball Classic.

Print Media Reaction:

            The following quotes are a sample of excerpts taken from United States print media including reaction to the game between the U.S. and Japan and reaction to Japan winging the tournament:

“If it wasn’t apparent before, it should be by now…The favored USA team is no more likely to win the first World Baseball Classic than you are to pick the champion in your NCAA basketball office pool this month (March)”[7].

“Japanese baseball is right on a par with American ball. I know when we send teams to play over there, they kick our butts all the time (Chipper Jones, USA 3B)”[8].

“We’re just trying to make it exciting for everyone,” teased Vernon Wells”[9].

“If the Classic’s critics in baseball and the news media have not seen the errors of their views, they are hopeless Neanderthals who should curl up with a book of statistics and go crazy”[10].

“I wonder how Hideki Matsui really feels now that his countrymen, led by Ichiro Suzuki, have won the first Classic.  By refusing to play, Matsui insulted his country and his country’s baseball legend, the team’s manager, Sadaharu Oh”[11].

“This was my first time to play for team Japan, and I do think that I have the Japanese flag on my shoulders, so that might be the primary reason that I became so emotional in these games (Ichiro Suzuki)”[12].

“Obviously, you see the value of their practice regimen where they take hundreds of ground balls a day.  They swing a hundred times a day more than we do in North America, I think it is time to say, ‘you know what? That’s not a bad idea’”[13].

I think some of the things that the Japanese and the Koreans do as a regular practice routine could benefit major league baseball clubs”[14].

“If there was a lesson to be learned, it’s that Japan, Cuba, Mexico and South Korea (the four teams that made it to the semi-finals) excelled at fundamentals.  It was so evident these countries played the game the way it was supposed to be played”[15].

“Fundamentals aren’t marketable; they don’t sell. Fans want to see home runs, not a shortstop and second baseman turning a beautiful double play”[16].

Analysis

            This data that has been gathered has revealed many things that I believe we already knew about baseball in Japan and America.  But I think it also provides an opportunity to look deeper into the meaning of the game played between the United States and Japan and as well the reaction and interaction of the American media.            Let me explore the possible conclusions to the three research questions that were presented in the conceptual framework:

1. How is the style of baseball that is played in Japan perceived by the media  in America?  How does Orientalism play a role in this perception?

            There is certainly a consistency with how the American media perceives the style of baseball in Japan.  The consensus is clearly that Japan does play a different style of baseball.  There was a constant reinforcement from the ESPN broadcasters of the style of baseball that Japan played being more fundamentally sound than the style that America plays.  

            The focus of Major League baseball in America is on power and home runs.  I believe this focus on power is a symbol of the imperial mindset of the United States and thus it appeals to the mass audience and therefore it sells tickets.  Just as Hal Bodley in the USA Today article exclaimed that small ball does not sell tickets but home runs do in America.   Japan’s style was described as fundamental and team oriented, willing to sacrifice and do all of the important details well.  The Japanese players are presented in the same terms as Samurai warriors whose motto is “all you have to do is be sure to do your own professional duty, and you have no reason to express dissatisfaction”[17].  I actually got the sense that people in the media appreciate the way that Japan plays and have a sort of romantic idealism associated with that described style. 

            That romantic idealism with a Japanese style is definitely rooted in the ideals of Said’s Orientalism however.  Japan’s culture has been “represented and admired as a unique Oriental culture by the West”[18].  The ease at which the American media separates Japan’s style from an American ideal keeps them at a comfortable distance where it is easy to both admire and shun their fate.  “The relationship between America and its Pacific or Far Eastern interlocutors – China, Japan, Korea, Indochina – is informed by racial prejudice, sudden and relatively unprepared rushes of attention followed by enormous pressure applied thousands of miles away geographically and intellectually distant from the lives of most Americans”[19]. 

            The actual game between the United States and Japan did not reveal many of the presumed stereotypes that were being constantly reinforced by the American media.  The show of power did definitely favor the United States team by hitting two home runs and producing three of their four runs by way of the home run.  But as far as fundamentals went, the Japanese team was not superior.  Japan made the only two fielding errors in the game, they were 2 for 3 in sacrifice bunt attempts while the U.S. team was 3 for 3. 

            In regards to displays of emotion, the Japanese team clearly was more animated than the U.S. team.  Sadaharu Oh was visibly seen celebrating as well as the rest of the team and players when the team played well.  At least three of the players on Japan’s team wore large necklaces and dyed hair which clearly exhibits a form of self expression and individualism – not just a focus on fitting in and doing there part for the team.  The American perception is overstated and fits in to an ideal of Japan which is influenced by the ideal of Orientalism and imperialism.  Despite the admiration of Japan there is a rite of passage for America and baseball.

2.         How is America’s influence affecting the tradition and style of baseball in Japan?

            Despite the fact that Japan still holds true to many of its traditions within the game of baseball, there is not question that the American game is changing the way baseball is being played and perceived in Japan.  It seems somewhat ironic because the baseball purest will say that Japan’s methods of training, practice, attention to the minutia of the game, and influence on team play are what makes baseball such an enjoyable sport.  But the truth is the Major Leagues in America are now what Japanese players aspire to attain.

            As the first position player to come over from Japan, Ichiro has carved a pathway for more players top players to make the leap from Japan to the Major Leagues in the United States.  Ichiro’s comments about what it would mean for Japan to beat the United States in the World Baseball Classic were very interesting.  It is clear to see that Ichiro is full of pride for his country and for his unique style of playing but he believes that the only way he can gain the ultimate respect is by proving himself in the United States. 

            In some ways, when Ichiro first made the move to America, he was under intense pressure to perform and seemingly justify the Japanese game by succeeding.  But now as a result of Ichiro, as the Major Leagues have opened up to more position players, it seems as though Japan will likely lose many of its stars.  At least four of the players on Japan’s national roster expressed a strong desire to play baseball in the Major Leagues while only two players on the team were currently playing in the big leagues.  In the case of Hideki Matsui, it seems that he has abandoned the ideal of traditional Japanese baseball in pursuit of personal triumph.  Well of course there is money as well; the average major league salary in America is three times what it is in Japan.

            Despite the fact that what Ichiro did may inspire countless other Japanese players and kids to say, ‘okay, I can make it on my own too’[20], there is something deeply rooted in the psyche of Japan that says they somehow have to prove themselves elsewhere.  This inferior mindset has caused some to rebel and fight for respect but at the same time it in some ways is an admission of Orientalism.  After all, “Japan has been exposed to strong political and militaristic pressure from such Western powers as Britain, the United States, and Russia since the early stages of modernization”[21].

3.         How will Japan’s victory in the inaugural World Baseball Classic affect the future of baseball in Japan and America?

            Japan’s victory in the World Baseball Classic was a refreshing triumph for not only baseball but the world.  In terms of a deserving champion, Japan exemplified hard work and determination in the tournament, and proved that the biggest and most powerful team (or country) does not always win.  However, despite the fact that Japan has proven to be a superior baseball country, at least for the time being, what the outcome will likely be is more players coming to the United States to play. 

            Baseball in Japan will continue to flourish and potentially a new crop of players could come from Japan that will break the mold and stereotype of what Japanese players represent.  Though positive results can often times give teams and countries hope, it takes years of continued results to overcome centuries of discretion.  The unique way that the World baseball Classic played out, with the United States seemingly getting all of the breaks it needed to beat Japan and uphold the imperial dominance, Japan was able to overcome and prevail.  The next tournament will be held in 2009 in Japan and at the very least we may see less evidence of an us versus them mentality from the United States side and the focus can be more on winning for both sides.

Conclusion

            It seems as though the Japanese style of baseball is a more pure form of baseball how it was intended to be played.  The American way of baseball is not eloquent or graceful to watch as is the traditional Japanese style of team play.  So why are the biggest stars in Japan looking to come to America to prove themselves and leave the tradition of Japanese baseball?  I believe that the imperial dominance of Western ideals is a concept that is too tempting for some who have been isolated and taught to not put themselves first.  It is a concept that I find intriguing because to me it is both liberating and disgusting at the same time. 

            Clearly, the Japanese style of baseball has proven itself as worthy of great praise and in the case of the World Baseball Classic proved to be the best in the world.  But despite the refreshing and gracefully impressive style that was exhibited by Japan at the World Baseball Classic, there is the sense that American imperialism will continue to dominate baseball, at least for the time being. 

Recommendations

            There are many angles that can be studied in accordance with baseball in Japan and the United States.  Many people have already written books and articles on the subject.  It would be considerably interesting to follow first hand how American players are treated in Japan, in the media, on the field, and within a team in comparison to how Japanese players are treated in America.  I believe this research could further support the research that has been done in this paper by making not of the differences between treatment and perception in American and Japanese baseball players.

            The two countries share so much more than baseball. Yet at the same time there are elements of each culture that are completely alien to the other. Baseball is a good place to see what we have in common, and where we rub like sandpaper.

References

Bodley, Hal. "USA's Opponents Mastered Basics." USA Today, March 21, 2006. p. C7.

Cafardo, Nick. "Looking East for Influence." Boston Globe, March 18, 2006. p. C6.

Chass, Murray. "The Critics Missed the Cheers Heard Around the World." New York             Times, March 22, 2006. p. D5.

Cleary, Thomas. Code of Samurai. Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 1999.

Harada, Yoko. "The Occident in the Orient or the Orient in the Occident?: Reception of             Said's Orientalism in Japan." Presented at the Biennial ASAA Conference,             University of Wollongong, Australia, 2006.

Nishihara, Daisuke. "Said, Orientalism, and Japan." Alif: Journal of Comparative             Poetics. 25, (2005): 241-253.

Patton, Gregg. "It's Now Clear; No USA Cakewalk." The Press - Enterprise, March 13,             2006. p. C1.

Said, Edward W.  Culture and Imperialism: London: Vintage Books, 1993.

Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978.

Shaughnessy, Dan. "Japan on Top of World With Classic Win." Boston Globe, March     21, 2006. p. E7.

Whiting, Robert. You Gotta Have WA. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.

Whiting, Robert. The Samurai Way of Baseball. New York: Warner Books, 2004.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research-3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks,             California: Sage             Publications, 2003.

---

[1] Robert Whiting, You Gotta Have WA (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), 49.

[2] Robert Whiting, The Samurai Way of Baseball (New York: Warner Books, 2004), 51.

[3] Whiting, You Gotta Have Wa, 66.

[4] Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), 6.

[5] Whiting, You Gotta Have WA, 70.

[6] Robert K Yin, Case Study Research-3rd Edition (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2003), 9.

[7] Gregg Patton. "It's Now Clear; No USA Cakewalk." The Press - Enterprise, March 13, 2006.

[8] Patton

[9] Patton

[10] Murray Chass. "The Critics Missed the Cheers Heard Around the World." New York Times, March 22, 2006.

[11] Chass

[12] Dan Shaughnessy. "Japan on Top of World With Classic Win." Boston Globe, March 21, 2006.

[13] Nick Cafardo. "Looking East for Influence." Boston Globe, March 18, 2006.

[14] Cafardo

[15] Hal Bodley. "USA's Opponents Mastered Basics." USA Today, March 21, 2006.

[16] Bodley

[17] Thomas Cleary, Code of Samurai (Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 1999), 90.

[18] Yoko, Harada. "The Occident in the Orient or the Orient in the Occident?: Reception of Said's Orientalism in Japan" (Presented at the Biennial ASAA Conference, University of Wollongong, Australia, 2006).

[19] Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage Books, 1993), 350

[20] Whiting, The Samurai Way of Baseball, 206

[21] Daisuke Nishihara. "Said, Orientalism, and Japan." Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics. 25, (2005): 242